Chicago style

This guide is based on the 18th edition of the Chicago Manual of Style and outlines the key principles of Chicago referencing.

For full guidance, consult the manual:

The Chicago Manual of Style. 18th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2024.

Please note: Referencing requirements may vary between schools and modules. To ensure you are following the correct style, consult your module guidance, tutor(s) or school office.

Quick Links

Using Chicago Style: Two Citation Options

When using the Chicago referencing style, you can choose to cite sources in one of two ways:

1. Footnotes and Bibliography

Use superscript numbers in your text to indicate a citation.
Provide full source details in footnotes at the bottom of the page.
Include a full bibliography at the end of your work.

2. Author-Date

Cite sources in-text by giving the author's surname and the year of publication in brackets e.g. (Randall, 2020).
Include a full bibliography at the end of your work.

Check your module guidance or ask your tutor if you’re unsure which option to use.

This guide focuses on the Footnotes and Bibliography option. For guidance on how using author-date citations in Chicago, see Chapter 13 of The Chicago Manual of Style. 18th ed.

How to Cite Sources in Text

In-text Numbering and Footnotes

Insert superscript numbers in your text to indicate a citation:

The Treaty of Versailles significantly influenced the political landscape of post-war Europe.¹

Each note number should correspond to a footnote at the bottom of the page:

1. Margaret MacMillan, Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World (Random House, 2003).

Footnotes should be numbered consecutively, in the order they appear in the text.
Place the note number at the end of the sentence or clause, where possible.
The note number should be placed after punctuation (except a dash which it should precede).

Example note placement:

The quick fox jumps over the lazy dog,¹ but the dog² - who was not so lazy after all - chased the fox away.³

When to Include Page Numbers

Include page numbers in footnotes when:

Quoting directly
Paraphrasing a specific section of a source

You do not need to include page numbers when summarising the overall argument or content of a source.

Place page number(s) at the end of the footnote, after a comma:

1. Margaret MacMillan, Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World (Random House, 2003), 45.

If the quote or paraphrased section spans multiple pages, give the page range with a dash:

1. Margaret MacMillan, Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World (Random House, 2003), 45-46.

If your footnote includes a URL or DOI, place the page number(s) before the link:

1. Olof Sundqvist, The Demise of Norse Religion: Dismantling and Defending the Old Order in Viking Age Scandinavia (De Gruyter, 2023), 33, https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111198750.

Note: If the source has no page numbers (e.g. a video or presentation), give an alternative locator such as a timestamp, slide number, or chapter/paragraph number.

Repeat Citations (Shortnotes)

When citing a source you have cited already in your work, you may use a shortened version of the full note, known as a shortnote. This includes:

The author’s surname
A shortened title (the first few words or a key phrase)
Page number(s) (if quoting directly or citing a specific section of a work)

Example:

1. Jennifer Platt, “The History of the Interview,” in The SAGE Handbook of Interview Research: The Complexity of the Craft, ed. Jaber Gubrium et al. (SAGE Publications, 2012), 24.
2. Platt, History of the Interview, 22.

If you have several consecutive citations of the same source, you may omit the title and give just the author’s surname and page number in your shortnotes.

Example:

Note: Chicago 18th edition discourages the use of ‘Ibid.’. Use shortnotes instead.

Quotations

Chicago Style uses two types of quotation, run-in and block quotations.

Run-in Quotations

Use for short quotes (under 100 words). Place inside double quotation marks within your text:

According to Bergson, “every number is a collection of units, as we have said, and on the other hand every number is itself a unit, in so far as it is a synthesis of the units which compose it.”¹ However, Kant argues…

Block Quotations

Use for:

Longer quotes (over 100 words)
Quotes spanning multiple paragraphs
Preserving original formatting (e.g., poetry, lists, letters)

How to format:

Start on a new line, as its own paragraph
Indent the full quote from the left (use the ↹ key)
Do not use quotation marks

Example:

Historically, the experience of the French civilians living under German military occupation has been underexamined. As Connolly points out:

This suffering was thus commemorated, as elsewhere, by honouring military sacrifices. By flattening differences in this way, the unique experience of occupation – a problematic reminder of the inability of France and its Allies to liberate occupied territory for four years – was slotted into and overshadowed by the wider national narrative of the conflict. This is the prevailing explanation of this ‘forgetfulness’, although on the local scale the reality was more complicated.¹

Further examination is needed to...

1. James E. Connolly, The Experience of Occupation in the Nord, 1914–18: Living with the Enemy in First World War France (Manchester University Press, 2018), 2, https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526117816.

Quoting Poetry and Verse

Short quotations (run-in):

Use a spaced upright stroke to indicate line breaks:

“So rested he by the Tumtum tree | And stood awhile in thought.”¹

Long quotations (block):

Present the quote in its own centred paragraph, without quotation marks, preserving layout and indentation of the original:

Our protagonist is ambushed whilst lost in thought:

And, as in uffish thought he stood,

The Jabberwock, with eyes of flame,

Came whiffling through the tulgey wood,

And burbled as it came!¹

Frequent Quotations from the Same Source

If you’re quoting repeatedly from the same source (such as a book, play, or other work you’re analysing) you don’t need to give a full footnote every time. Instead, follow these steps:

Give the full footnote once.
Add a line to the end of this footnote explaining that further references will be given in-text as page numbers.

1. John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath (Picador, 1987), 33. Further references to this source are given in-text as page numbers.

After that, include the page number (or act, scene, and line for plays) in brackets directly after the quotation:

“They breathe profits: they eat the interest on money” (p. 34).

Important: Use this method for only one source you need to quote repeatedly. If you apply it to multiple sources, it can become unclear which source each in-text reference is referring to.

General rules for Footnotes & Bibliographies

Naming Authors

In footnotes:

Give the author’s forename then their surname.
List up to two authors. If a work has three or more authors, list only the first author followed by 'et al.'

Examples:

1. Valerie Shrimplin and Channa N. Jayasena, “Was Henry VIII Infertile? Miscarriages and Male Infertility in Tudor England”, Journal of Interdisciplinary History 52, no. 2 (2021): 155–76.

2. Sarah Snyder et al., “Unlearning through Mad Studies: Disruptive Pedagogical Praxis”, Curriculum Inquiry 49, no. 4 (2019): 485–502, https://doi.org/10.1080/03626784.2019.1664254.

In bibliographies:

Invert the first author’s name: surname, then forename.
List all other authors with their forename first, then their surname.

For example:

Shrimplin, Valerie, and Channa N. Jayasena. “Was Henry VIII Infertile? Miscarriages and Male Infertility in Tudor England.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 52, no. 2 (2021): 155–76.

List up to six authors. If more than six, list the first three authors followed by “et al.”

Snyder, Sarah, Kendra-Ann Pitt, Fady Shanouda et al. “Unlearning through Mad Studies: Disruptive Pedagogical Praxis.” Curriculum Inquiry 49, no. 4 (2019): 485–502. https://doi.org/10.1080/03626784.2019.1664254.

Group or Organisational Authors

Some sources are authored by an organisation or group rather than by named individuals.

If individual authors are listed, use their names.
If no individuals are named, use the organisation or group as the author.

Using Abbreviations

When citing a group or organisation:

In your first footnote and bibliography entry, write the full name of the organisation, followed by its abbreviation in square brackets.
In subsequent shortnotes, you may use just the abbreviation.

Example:

1. Royal Historical Society [RHS], Gender Equality and Historians in UK Higher Education (2015), https://royalhistsoc.org/publications/rhs-reports/.
2. RHS, Gender Equality, 35.

Group Authors as Publishers

If the organisation or group is both the author and the publisher of a source, you should:

In footnotes, list the organisation only once as the author (see example above).
In the bibliography, list the organisation as both the author and the publisher.

Example (Bibliography)

Royal Historical Society. Gender Equality and Historians in UK Higher Education. Royal Historical Society, 2015. https://royalhistsoc.org/publications/rhs-reports/.

Capitalisation

Chicago style uses title case. When listing the title of a work, capitalise the first word, all major words, and the first word after any punctuation.

Example:

States of Inquiry: Social Investigations and Print Culture in Nineteenth-Century Britain and the United States

When to Include URLs and DOIs

When referencing a source, you accessed online:

Give the DOI (Digital Object Identifier) at the end of the footnote and bibliography entry, if available:

1. Jayeeta Sharma, “British Science, Chinese Skill and Assam Tea: Making Empire’s Garden”, The Indian Economic and Social History Review 43, no. 4 (2006): 429, https://doi.org/10.1177/001946460604300402.

If there’s no DOI and the source is from a login-only database (i.e. only available via a university subscription), give the database name instead:

1. Jyoti Atwal et al., Gender and History: Ireland, 1852–1922 (Routledge India, 2022), EBSCOhost.

If there’s no DOI and the source is freely available online, give the full URL:

1. Samia Spencer, French Women and the Age of Enlightenment (Indiana University Press, 1992), https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/3/oa_edited_volume/book/113358.

If the source has no DOI and no publication/revision date, include an access date before the URL:

1. Katherine Harvey, “Subject Guide: Religious History on British History Online”, British History Online, accessed July 7, 2025, https://www.british-history.ac.uk/using-bho/religious-history-guide.

Missing Information

If a source is missing key details—like the author or date—include as much of the other information needed for the reference/footnote as possible.

If the missing information can’t be found, you can usually leave it out, as long as the reference still clearly identifies the source.

Certain types of missing information require specific formatting:

No Date

For printed sources with no publication date, use (n.d.) in place of the year:

1. Jason Mendeley, Understanding Urban History (John Murray Press, n.d.), 22.

Mendeley, Jason. Understanding Urban History. John Murray Press, n.d.

For online sources:

If the source has a last updated or revised date, use that in place of a publication date:

1. Natural History Museum, “Data Protection Policy”, updated September 2, 2020, https://www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/governance/data-protection-policy.html.

If no date is listed, include the date you accessed the source before the URL or DOI:

1. Climate Action Network, “Global Emissions”, accessed July 10, 2025, https://climateaction.org/emissions2025.

No Author

If no individual author is named:

Check for a group or organisational author.
If no author or organisation is listed, give the title first instead.

Example:

1. A Guide to Sustainable Living (Green Earth, 2020), 15.

Bibliographies

The bibliography appears at the end of your document and includes:

All cited sources
Any other relevant sources you consulted (if required)

In some cases, only cited sources are listed. In others, a bibliography may not be required if full details are given in footnotes. If you’re unsure, check your module guidance or ask your tutor(s).

Formatting your Bibliography

Start on a new page, with the title Bibliography in bold and centred at the top
Invert the first author’s name: list their surname first, then their forename (e.g. Dickinson, Jane.). List any other author’s forename first, then surname.
List entries in alphabetical order.
List up to 6 authors: If a source has more than six authors, list the first three authors, followed by et al.
If a source has no listed author, use the title instead.
Apply a hanging indent: indent the second and any following lines of each reference by 0.5 inches (use the Tab key)
End all bibliography entries with a full stop.

Example Bibliography:

Dombrowski, K. “Totem Poles and Tricycle Races: The Certainties and Uncertainties ofNative Village Life, Coastal Alaska 1878–1930.” Journal of Historical Sociology 8, no. 2 (1995): 136–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6443.1995.tb00084.x.

Fraser, Gordon. “Earth/Atmosphere: The Leonid Meteor Shower, 1833.” In Crossings in Nineteenth-Century American Culture: Junctures of Time, Space, Self and Politics, edited by Edward Sugden, 29–40. Edinburgh University Press, 2022. Cambridge Core.

Steinbeck, John. The Grapes of Wrath. Picador, 1987.

Twinch, Carol. Women on the Land: Their Story During Two World Wars. Lutterworth Press, 1990. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1131fxw.

How you format each footnote and reference in the bibliography depends on the type of source (e.g. book, journal article, website). The sections below provide specific guidance on creating footnotes and bibliography entries for different types of material.

Books

If the entire book is written by the same author(s), reference the whole book using the format below.

If the book has different authors for each chapter, reference the individual chapter you used instead. See the Book Chapters section for guidance on this.

General format

Footnote

Author(s), Title (Publisher: Year), page number(s), DOI/URL/database [if accessed online].

Bibliography

Author(s). Title. Publisher, Year. DOI/URL/database [if accessed online].

Examples

Footnotes

1. Matthew K. Gold and Lauren F. Klein, Debates in the Digital Humanities (University of Minnesota Press, 2019), 42.

2. Claire Warwick et al., Digital Humanities in Practice (Facet Publishing in association with UCL Centre for Digital Humanities, 2012), 22, https://doi.org /10.29085/9781856049054.

Bibliography

Gold, Matthew K., and Lauren F. Klein. Debates in the Digital Humanities. University of Minnesota Press, 2019.

Warwick, Claire, Melissa M. Terras, Julianne Nyhan, and Jean Genie. Digital Humanities in Practice. Facet Publishing in association with UCL Centre for Digital Humanities, 2012. https://doi.org/10.29085/9781856049054.

Variations

eBooks

For books accessed online, give either a DOI, URL or database name at the end of your footnote and reference.

If you’re unsure which to include, see the ‘When to Include URLs and DOIs’ section.

Example:

1. Carol Twinch, Women on the Land: Their Story During Two World Wars, (Lutterworth Press, 1990), 128, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1131fxw.

Twinch, Carol. Women on the Land: Their Story During Two World Wars. Lutterworth Press, 1990. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1131fxw.

If you accessed a downloadable version of the book on a Kindle, or apps like Google Play Books or Apple Books, give the name of the platform (e.g. Kindle) in place of a URL/DOI.

Example:

1. Dan Jones, The Hollow Crown: The Wars of the Roses and the Rise of the Tudors (Faber & Faber, 2014), 422. Google Play Books.

Jones, Dan. The Hollow Crown: The Wars of the Roses and the Rise of the Tudors. Faber & Faber, 2014. Google Play Books.

Books Published Before 1900

For books published before 1900, give the place of publication (ideally the city) rather than the publisher’s name.

Example:

1. Joseph Story, Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States (Boston: 1833), 32.

Story, Joseph. Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States. Boston: 1833.

Books That Are Not the First Edition

If the book is not a first edition, include the edition name/number after the title, using the abbreviation ‘ed.’

Example:

1. Lucille Alice Suchman, Human-Machine Reconfigurations: Plans and Situated Actions, 2nd ed. (Cambridge University Press, 2007), 77.

Suchman, Lucille Alice. Human-Machine Reconfigurations: Plans and Situated Actions. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Books with Named Editors or Translators

If the book lists an editor or translator on the cover (in addition to the author), include their name(s) after the title.

In footnotes, use ‘ed.’ for editors and ‘trans.’ for translators:

1. Daniel Defoe, A Journal of the Plague Year, ed. Cynthia Wall (Penguin Books, 2003).

2. Ivan Turgenev, A Month in the Country, trans. Emlyn Williams (Samuel French, 1985).

In the bibliography, write out ‘Edited by’ or ‘Translated by’ in full:

Defoe, Daniel. A Journal of the Plague Year. Edited by Cynthia Wall. Penguin Books, 2003.

Turgenev, Ivan. A Month in the Country. Translated by Emlyn Williams. Samuel French, 1985.

If the book is not a first edition, give the edition number before the editor or translator’s name:

1. Gilles Deleuze, The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque, 2nd. ed., trans. Tom Conley (Continuum, 2006), 49.

Deleuze, Gilles. The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque. 2nd. ed. Translated by Tom Conley. Continuum, 2006.

Book Chapters

If a book has different authors for each chapter, reference the specific chapter you used — not the book as a whole.

General format

Footnote

Author(s), “Title of chapter,” in Title of Book, ed. Forename Surname of Editor(s) (Publisher, Year of publication), page number(s). DOI/URL/database [if accessed online].

Bibliography

Author(s). “Title of chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Forename Surname of Editor(s). Publisher, Year of publication. DOI/URL/database [if accessed online].

Example

Footnote

1. Mike Gonzalez, “Crazy Little Armies: Guerrilla Strategy in Latin America 1958-90", in Arms and the People, ed. Mike Gonzalez and Houman Barekat (Pluto Press, 2013), 199, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt183gzws.12.

Bibliography

Gonzalez, Mike. “Crazy Little Armies: Guerrilla Strategy in Latin America 1958-90." in Arms and the People, edited by Mike Gonzalez and Houman Barekat. Pluto Press, 2013. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt183gzws.12.

Variations

Chapters in Books with Multiple Editors

In footnotes:

List up to two editors. If a work has three or more editors, list only the first editor followed by ‘et al.’

1. Shirin Akhtar, “The Status of Widows in Bangladesh”, in Women’s Rights and Human Rights: International Historical Perspectives, ed. Katie Holmes et al. (Palgrave, 2001), 221.

In bibliographies:

List up to six editors. If there are more than six, list the first three editors followed by ‘et al.’:

Akhtar, Shirin. “The Status of Widows in Bangladesh.” In Women’s Rights and Human Rights: International Historical Perspectives, edited by Katie Holmes, Marilyn Lake, Patricia Grimshaw et al. Palgrave, 2001.

Chapters from Books that are not the first edition

If the chapter is from a book which is not the first edition, include the edition number/name after the book’s title, and before the editor’s name(s). Use the abbreviation ‘ed.’

Example:

1. Jussi M. Hanhimäki and Joseph A. Maiolo, “Japan, China and the Origins of the Pacific War, 1900–41”, in International History of the Twentieth Century and Beyond, 3rd ed., ed. Antony Best and Kirsten E. Schulze (Routledge, 2014), 68.

Hanhimäki, Jussi M. and Joseph A. Maiolo. “Japan, China and the Origins of the Pacific War, 1900–41.” In International History of the Twentieth Century and Beyond, 3rd ed., edited by Antony Best and Kirsten E. Schulze. Routledge, 2014.

Journal Articles

General format

Footnote

Author(s), “Article Title,” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue (Year of publication): page number(s), DOI.

Bibliography

Author(s). “Article Title.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue (Year of publication): page range. DOI.

Examples

Footnote

1. Aluisius Hery Pratono and Denni Arli, “Linking Global Consumer Culture and Ethnocentric Consumerism to Global Citizenship: Exploring the Mediating Effect of Cultural Intelligence,” International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 40, no. 7 (2020): 670, https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-10-2019-0212.

Bibliography

Pratono, Aluisius Hery, and Denni Arli. “Linking Global Consumer Culture and Ethnocentric Consumerism to Global Citizenship: Exploring the Mediating Effect of Cultural Intelligence.” International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 40, no. 7 (2020): 659–75. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-10-2019-0212.

Variations

Journal Articles without a DOI

If a journal article does not have a DOI (Digital Object Identifier):

If the article is freely available online, give the full URL:

1. Peter C. Perdue, “Comparing Empires: Manchu Colonialism,” The International History Review 20, no. 2 (1998): 256. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40108220.

Perdue, Peter C. “Comparing Empires: Manchu Colonialism.” The International History Review 20, no. 2 (1998): 255–62. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40108220.

If the article is from a login-only database (i.e. only available via a university subscription), give the database name instead:

1. David J. Jeremy, “Innovation in American Textile Technology during the Early 19th Century,” Technology and Culture 14, no. 1 (1973): 41. Project MUSE.

Jeremy, David J. “Innovation in American Textile Technology during the Early 19th Century.” Technology and Culture 14, no. 1 (1973): 40-76. Project MUSE.

For more information, see the When to Include URLs and DOIs.

Journal Articles from Special Issues

A special issue of a journal publishes articles focused on a specific theme. When referencing a journal article from a special issue:

After the article title, add “in” followed by the title of the special issue in quotation marks.
Give the editor(s) of the special issue, if named.
Then add “special issue” before the journal title.

Example:

1. Andre Liebich, “History and Its ‘Losers’,” in “New Frontiers in History,” ed. Greg Melleuish, special issue, Histories 1, no. 4 (2021): 287, https://doi.org/10.3390/histories1040023.

Liebich, Andre. “History and Its ‘Losers’.” In “New Frontiers in History.” Edited by Greg Melleuish. Special issue, Histories 1, no. 4 (2021): 282-288. https://doi.org/10.3390/histories1040023.

Pre-prints

A pre-print is a version of a journal article made available online before formal publication. When referencing a pre-print:

Include the full date (day, month, and year) if available.
If the article doesn’t yet have a volume or issue number, leave these out.
If found in a general research database, add “ahead of print” after the journal title.

Example:

1. Nicola Bassoni, “Searching for Japan: 20th Century Italy’s Fascination with Japanese Culture,” Modern Italy, ahead of print, December 14, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1017/mit.2022.57.

Bassoni, Nicola. “Searching for Japan: 20th Century Italy’s Fascination with Japanese Culture.” Modern Italy, ahead of print, December 14, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1017/mit.2022.57.

If the pre-print is hosted on a dedicated pre-print server (e.g. arXiv), replace the journal name, volume, and issue with “preprint” and the name of the database.

Example:

1. Laurie E. Cutting et al., “Are Betting Markets Better than Polling in Predicting Political Elections?” Preprint, arXiv, July 11, 2025, https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2507.08921.

Cutting, Laurie E., Sarah S. Hughes-Berheim, Paul M. Johnson, Hiba Baroud, and Brett Goldstein. “Are Betting Markets Better than Polling in Predicting Political Elections?” Preprint, arXiv, July 11, 2025. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2507.08921.

Newspapers & Magazine Articles

When referencing newspaper and magazine articles:

Omit smaller words like ‘the’ and ‘a’, from newspaper/magazine names (e.g. use ‘Guardian’ not ‘The Guardian.’)
If needed for clarity, add the location in brackets e.g., Guardian (London).
Use title case for article titles, even if the original uses sentence case.

General Format

Footnote

Author(s), “Article Title,” Newspaper/Magazine Name, Month Day, Year, URL [if accessed online].

Bibliography

Author(s). “Article Title.” Newspaper/Magazine Name, Month Day, Year. URL [if accessed online].

Examples

Footnotes

1. Rebecca Smithers and Molly Blackall, “UK Staycation Boom Lifts Sales of Camping Gear,” Guardian (London), August 6, 2020, http://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/aug/06/uk-staycation-boom-lifts-sales-of-camping-gear.

2. Justin Worland, “America’s Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism,” Time, June 11, 2020, https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america.

Bibliography

Smithers, Rebecca, and Molly Blackall. “UK Staycation Boom Lifts Sales of Camping Gear.” Guardian (London), 6 August, 2020. http://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/aug/06/uk-staycation-boom-lifts- sales-of-camping-gear.

Worland, Justin. “America’s Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism.” Time, June 11, 2020. https://time.com/5851855/systemic-racism-america.

Variations

Online Articles with No Suitable URL

If an online article has no direct or stable URL, or the link is too long, give the name of the database instead:

1. Chris Blattman, "The Strategic Logic of Russia's War on Ukraine," Wall Street Journal, April 26, 2022, 3. ProQuest One Business.

Blattman, Chris. "The Strategic Logic of Russia's War on Ukraine." Wall Street Journal, April 26, 2022. ProQuest One Business.

Articles with No Named Author

If no author is listed:

Omit the author in the footnote.
In the bibliography, begin with the name of the newspaper or magazine.

Example:

1. "Not So Bored in the House," Vanity Fair, July/August 2020. Nexis.

Vanity Fair, "Not So Bored in the House." July/August 2020. Nexis.

Long Articles (Giving Page Numbers)

You don’t need to include page numbers for newspaper or magazine articles.

However, if the article is particularly long, it’s good practice to include a page number or section name in the footnote - just before the URL or database name:

1. Paul Cullen, “Scientists Call for Zero-Covid Policy,” Irish Times, August 5, 2020, 2, Nexis.

Websites

Use this format when referencing content from a website that doesn’t fall into another category (e.g. blog post, journal article, or conference paper).

According to the Chicago Manual of Style, website content is often cited in-text or in a footnote only, without a bibliography entry. If you're unsure whether to include a bibliography entry, check your module guidance or ask your tutor.

When referencing websites:

In footnotes, begin with the title of the webpage.
In the bibliography, begin with the site owner or sponsor.
If the site owner and the website name are the same, list it only once.

General Format

Footnote

“Title of Webpage,” Website Name, Owner/sponsor of the site, last modified Month, Day, Year, URL.

Bibliography

Owner/sponsor of the site. Website name. “Title of Webpage.” Last modified Month, Day, Year, URL.

Examples

Footnote

1.“About Food and Mood,” Mind, last modified April 25, 2025, https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/tips-for-everyday-living/food-and-mood/about-food-and-mood.

Bibliography

Mind. “About Food and Mood.” Last modified April 25, 2025. https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/tips-for-everyday-living/food-and-mood/about-food-and-mood.

Variations

Webpages with No Date

If no publication or last modified date is available, include the date you accessed the page instead.

1.“Social Policy,” UNICEF, accessed July 21, 2024, https://www.unicef.org/social-policy.

UNICEF. “Social Policy.” Accessed July 21, 2024. https://www.unicef.org/social-policy.

Social Media

As with websites, social media content is often cited in-text or in a footnote only, without a bibliography entry. If you're unsure whether to include it in your bibliography, check your module guidance or ask your tutor.

When referencing social media content:

Only cite public posts or comments. Private messages or content from private accounts should be treated as personal correspondence.
Keep the original punctuation, spelling, and emojis from the post.
Include both the poster’s name and username, if available.

General Format

Footnote

Name of poster (@username), “Title of post,” Social Media Platform, Month Day, Year, URL.

Bibliography

Name of poster (@username). “Title of post.” Social Media Platform, Month Day, Year. URL.

Examples

Footnotes

1. Greta Thunberg (@GretaThunberg), “this is what happens when you don’t recycle your pizza boxes,” Twitter, December 30, 2022, https://x.com/GretaThunberg/status/1608735970131849217.

2. National University of Singapore, “Empowering Communities Through Engineering Innovation,” Facebook, January 8, 2024, https://www.facebook.com/nus.signapore.

Bibliography

National University of Singapore. “Empowering Communities Through Engineering Innovation.” Facebook, January 8, 2024. https://www.facebook.com/nus.signapore.

Thunberg, Greta (@GretaThunberg). “this is what happens when you don’t recycle your pizza boxes.” Twitter, December 30, 2022. https://x.com/GretaThunberg/status/1608735970131849217.

Variations

Posts with No Clear Title

If the post doesn’t have a title, include enough of the post’s text (up to 280 characters) to identify it:

1. Maxine Waters (@RepMaxineWaters), “Get ready for impeachment.,” Twitter, March 21, 2017, https://x.com/RepMaxineWaters/status/844170858159636480.

Comments on Social Media

Provided you’ve referenced the original post, comments on posts can be mentioned in-text, without a formal citation.

Example (in-text):

Responding to the Smithsonian's Instagram post, National Geographic (@natgeo) commented “Incredible find! This adds so much to our understanding of early human history.”

Videos and Photos on Social Media

When referencing a photo or video, specify the format after the platform name:

1. Barack Obama (@barackobama), “I didn’t really know my father—he left my mother and me when I was two,” Instagram photo, March 22, 2021, https://www.instagram.com/p/CMueXNGAZWl/?hl=en.

2. Nathan Evans (@nathanevanss), “The Wellerman.,” TikTok video, December 27, 2020, https://www.tiktok.com/@nathanevanss/video/6910995345421962498

Films

When referencing films:

In footnotes, begin with the film title or scene title/number.
In the bibliography, begin with the director’s name, followed by the abbreviation ‘dir.’

General Format

Footnote

Title of Film, directed by Forename Surname (Distributor, Year released), URL [if accessed online].

Bibliography

Director Surname, Forename, dir. Title of Film. Distributor, Year released. URL [if accessed online].

Examples

Footnote

1. Rush, directed by Ron Howard (Universal Pictures, 2013), https://www.netflix.com/gb/title/70253165.

Bibliography

Howard, Ron, dir. Rush. Universal Pictures, 2013. https://www.netflix.com/gb/title/70253165.

Variations

Film Scenes

If you're referring to a specific scene, include the scene title or number in quotation marks at the start of the footnote.

Do not include the scene title or number in the bibliography.

Use indexed scene titles if available.
If not, use scene numbers.

Example:

1. “Crop Duster Attack”, North by Northwest, directed by Alfred Hitchcock (1959; Warner Bros. Pictures), https://learningonscreen.ac.uk/ondemand/index.php/prog/RT473E44?bcast=120383423.

Hitchcock Alfred, dir. North by Northwest. 1959; Warner Bros. Pictures. https://learningonscreen.ac.uk/ondemand/index.php/prog/RT473E44?bcast=120383423.

Films Viewed on DVD or Other Physical Formats

If you viewed the film on a physical format (e.g. DVD, Blu-ray), include the medium at the end of the citation instead of a URL:

1. The Matrix, directed by Lana Wachowski and Lilly Wachowski (1999: Warner Bros), DVD.

Wachowski, Lana and Lilly Wachowski, dir. The Matrix. 1999: Warner Bros. DVD.

Re-releases of Films

If you're referencing a re-release of a film, include the original release year first, followed by a semicolon, then the distributor and re-release year:

1. La dolce vita, directed by Federico Fellini (1960; Nouveaux Pictures, 2004), DVD.

Fellini, Federico, dir. La dolce vita. 1960; Nouveaux Pictures, 2004. DVD.

TV

When referencing episodes in TV series:

In footnotes, begin with the series title.
In the bibliography, begin with the director’s name, followed by ‘dir.’
If viewed online, include the URL at the end of the citation.
If viewed on DVD or another physical format, include the medium instead.

General Format

Footnote

Programme/series title, season number, episode number, “Title of Episode,” directed by Director’s Forename Surname, aired Month Day, Year, on Name of channel/Broadcasting service, Medium/URL.

Bibliography

Director Surname, Forename, dir. Programme/series title. Season number, episode number, “Title of Episode.” Aired Month Day, Year, on Name of channel/Broadcasting service. Medium/URL.

Examples

Footnotes

1. The Story of Film: An Odyssey, season 1, episode 1, “Birth of Cinema” directed by Mark Cousins, aired September 3, 2011, on More4, https://www.kanopy.com/en/product/birth-cinema.

2. Stranger Things, season 3, episode 3, “Chapter Three: The Case of the Missing Lifeguard”, directed by Shawn Levy, written by Matt Duffer, Ross Duffer and William Bridges, aired July 4, 2019, on Netflix. https://www.netflix.com/gb/title/80057281.

Bibliography

Cousins, Mark, dir. The Story of Film: An Odyssey. Season 1, episode 1, “Birth of Cinema.” Aired September 3, 2011, on More4. https://www.kanopy.com/en/product/birth-cinema.

Levy, Shawn, dir. Stranger Things. Season 3, episode 3, “Chapter Three: The Case of the Missing Lifeguard.” Written by Matt Duffer, Ross Duffer and William Bridges. Aired July 4, 2019, on Netflix. https://www.netflix.com/gb/title/80057281.

Variations

TV Shows with One Season

If the show has only one season, omit the season number:

1. The Queen’s Gambit, episode 7, “End Game,” directed by Scott Frank, aired October 23, 2020, on Netflix. https://www.netflix.com/gb/title/80234304.

Frank, Scott, dir. The Queen’s Gambit, episode 7, “End Game.” Aired October 23, 2020, on Netflix. https://www.netflix.com/gb/title/80234304.

Crediting Other Contributors (Writers, Actors, etc)

You must include the director or producer at a minimum. If relevant to your discussion, you may also include other contributors. For example:

Writers – introduced with “Written by”
Producers – “Produced by”
Actors – “Featuring”

In footnotes, list these after the director. In the bibliography, list them after the episode title.

Example

1. American Crime Story: The People v. O. J. Simpson, episode 6, “Marcia, Marcia, Marcia,” directed by Ryan Murphy, written by D. V. DeVincentis, aired March 8, 2016, on FX, DVD.

Murphy, Ryan dir. American Crime Story: The People v. O. J. Simpson. Episode 6, “Marcia, Marcia, Marcia.” Written by D. V. DeVincentis. Aired March 8, 2016, on FX. DVD.

Podcasts

Use this format when referencing individual podcast episodes. The structure is similar to citing TV episodes.

Begin both footnotes and bibliography entries with the host’s name(s), followed by the word ‘host’ or ‘hosts.’
Include the season and episode number, if available.
Include the production company, if known. If not, you can omit it.

General Format

Footnote

Host(s), host, Programme/series title, season number, episode number, “Title of Episode” Production Company, Month Day, Year, URL.

Bibliography

Host(s), host. Programme/series title. Season number, episode number, “Title of Episode.” Production Company. Month Day, Year. URL.

Examples

Footnotes

1. Doug Metzger, host, Literature and History, episode 52, “White Flowers Die,” April 15, 2025, https://literatureandhistory.com.

2. Dominic Sandbrook and Tom Holland, hosts, The Rest is History, “Hannibal: Rome's Greatest Enemy (Part 1),” BBC Sounds, July 15, 2025, https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/p0lm92fm

Bibliography

Metzger, Doug, host. Literature and History. Episode 52, “White Flowers Die.” April 15, 2025. https://literatureandhistory.com.

Sandbrook, Dominic, and Tom Holland, hosts. The Rest is History. “Hannibal: Rome's Greatest Enemy (Part 1).” BBC Sounds, July 15, 2025. https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/p0lm92fm

Theses and Dissertations

General format

Footnote

Author(s), “Title of Thesis” (Degree level diss., University, year), page number(s), URL/database name [if accessed online].

Bibliography

Author(s). “Title of Thesis.” Degree level diss., University, year. URL/database name [if accessed online].

Examples

Footnotes

1. Christopher Joseph Loughnane, “Body, Environment, Technics: An Ethological Approach to Information” (PhD diss., University of Glasgow, 2020), 15, http://theses.gla.ac.uk/81298/.

2. Laura Hart, “Challenging Violence with Creativity: El Movimiento Hip Hop and the Alternative Youth Gangs of Guatemala City” (MA diss., University of Sussex, 2016), 33.

Bibliography

Hart, Laura. “Challenging Violence with Creativity: El Movimiento Hip Hop and the Alternative Youth Gangs of Guatemala City.” MA diss., University of Sussex, 2016.

Loughnane, Christopher Joseph. “Body, Environment, Technics: An Ethological Approach to Information.” PhD diss., University of Glasgow, 2020. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/81298/.

Other Items and Sources

This page covers the most common types of sources you’ll need to reference. For guidance on how to reference any other items, see Chapters 13 and 14 of the full manual:

The Chicago Manual of Style. 18th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2024.