Sensor Technology Research Centre

Wearable Technologies Laboratory

The Wearable Technologies Laboratory was founded by Dr Daniel Roggen in January 2014 within the Sensor Technology Research Centre, carrying on several of the research activities that he initiated while previously at ETH Zurich.

Our research activities lie in computational behaviour analytics in wearable, mobile and ubiquitous computing: the use of machine learning techniques, miniature sensors, and online data sources to recognize and understand human behaviours, activities, and context, including social interactions and cognitive-affective states. We emphasize novel sensing modalities and embedding this intelligence in miniature devices. Our long term vision are systems that follow a lifelong adaptive paradigm for use in open-ended scenarios.

The Wearable Technologies Lab investigates:

  • Novel wearable technologies including sensors and actuators.
  • Hardware and software co-design of algorithms and computing hardware.
  • Activity and context recognition algorithms.
  • Novel interaction paradigms with wearable and mobile devices.
  • Applications in various domains: sports, healthcare, industrial, etc.

Research projects

HumanE AI Net EU research project

 

 

HumanE AI Net

Funding: EU H2020, 2020-2023

 Behaviour analytics research project

Wearable consumer behaviour analytics

Funding: EPSRC & Unilever, 2019-2023

Deep learning for activity recognition

Deep learning for human activity recognition

Funding: Google Faculty Research Awards, 2015-2016

Lifelearn: Unbounded activity and context awareness

Lifelearn: Unbounded activity and context awareness

Funding: EPSRC, 2016-2018

Wearable sensors for beach volleyball

Wearable technologies for beach volleyball

Funding: internal, 2015-2019

 Huawei Logo

Activity recognition on mobile phones

Funding: Huawei, 2017-2018

 Google Glass

MinlAttention: Attention Management in Minimal Invasive Surgery

Funding: Austrian FFG, 2016-2019

BlueSense2 Wearable/IoT platform

Wearable/IoT sensing platform and IMU

 Funding: internal, ongoing

 

 

 Publications

Additional publications on Google Scholar

 

Article

Pellatt, Lloyd and Roggen, Daniel (2022) Speeding up deep neural architecture search for wearable activity recognition with early prediction of converged performance. Frontiers in Computer Science, 4. a914330 1-17. ISSN 2624-9898

Wang, Lin, Gjoreski, Hristijan, Ciliberto, Mathias, Lago, Paula, Murao, Kazuya, Okita, Tsuyoshi and Roggen, Daniel (2021) Three-year review of the 2018–2020 SHL challenge on transportation and locomotion mode recognition from mobile sensors. Frontiers in Computer Science, 3. pp. 1-24. ISSN 2624-9898

Lugoda, Pasindu, Costa, Júlio C, Garcia-Garcia, Leonardo A, Pouryazdan, Arash, Jocys, Zygimantas, Spina, Filippo, Salvage, Jonathan, Roggen, Daniel and Munzenrieder, Niko (2021) Coco stretch: strain sensors based on natural coconut oil and carbon black filled elastomers. Advanced Materials Technologies, 6 (2). 2000780 1-9. ISSN 2365-709X

Richoz, Sebastian, Wang, Lin, Birch, Philip and Roggen, Daniel (2020) Transportation mode recognition fusing wearable motion, sound and vision sensors. IEEE Sensors Journal, 20 (16). pp. 9314-9328. ISSN 1530-437X

Costa, Júlio C, Spina, Filippo, Lugoda, Pasindu, Garcia-Garcia, Leonardo, Roggen, Daniel and Münzenrieder, Niko (2019) Flexible sensors—from materials to applications. Technologies, 7 (2). 35 1-83. ISSN 2227-7080

Wang, Lin, Gjoreski, Hristijan, Ciliberto, Mathias, Mekki, Sami, Valentin, Stefan and Roggen, Daniel (2019) Enabling reproducible research in sensor-based transportation mode recognition with the Sussex-Huawei dataset. IEEE Access, 7. pp. 10870-10891. ISSN 2169-3536

Witchel, Harry J, Oberndorfer, Cäcilia, Needham, Robert, Healy, Aoife, Westling, Carina E I, Guppy, Joseph H, Bush, Jake, Barth, Jens, Hedrberz, Chantal, Roggen, Daniel, Eskofier, Björn M, Rashid, Waqar, Chockalingam, Nachiappan and Klucken, Jochen (2018) Thigh-derived inertial sensor metrics to assess the sit-to-stand and stand-to-sit transitions in the timed up and go (TUG) task for quantifying mobility impairment in multiple sclerosis. Frontiers in Neurology, 9 (684). pp. 1-16. ISSN 1664-2295

Gjoreski, Hristijan, Ciliberto, Mathias, Wang, Li, Ordonez Morales, Francisco Javier, Mekki, Sami, Valentin, Stefan and Roggen, Daniel (2018) The University of Sussex-Huawei locomotion and transportation dataset for multimodal analytics with mobile devices. IEEE Access, 6. pp. 42592-42604. ISSN 2169-3536

Liu, Xiyuan, Sheng, Zhengguo, Yin, Changchuan, Ali, Falah and Roggen, Daniel (2017) Performance analysis of Routing Protocol for Low power and Lossy Networks (RPL) in large scale networks. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 4 (6). pp. 2172-2185. ISSN 2327-4662

Hardegger, Michael, Roggen, Daniel, Calatroni, Alberto and Tröster, Gerhard (2016) S-SMART: a unified Bayesian framework for Simultaneous Semantic Mapping, Activity Recognition and Tracking. ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology, 7 (3). p. 34. ISSN 2157-6904

Ordonez Morales, Francisco Javier and Roggen, Daniel (2016) Deep convolutional and LSTM recurrent neural networks for multimodal wearable activity recognition. Sensors, 16 (1). pp. 1-25. ISSN 1424-8220

Hardegger, Michael, Roggen, Daniel and Gerhard, Tröster (2015) 3D ActionSLAM: wearable person tracking in multi-floor environments. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 19 (1). pp. 123-141. ISSN 1617-4909

Book Section

Gunthermann, Lukas, Wang, Lin, Simpson, Ivor, Philippides, Andrew and Roggen, Daniel (2022) Adversarial learning in accelerometer based transportation and locomotion mode recognition. In: Razavi-Far, Roozbeh, Ruiz-Garcia, Ariel, Palade, Vasile and Schmidhuber, Juergen (eds.) Generative adversarial learning: architectures and applications. Intelligent Systems Reference Library, 217 . Springer, Cham, pp. 205-232. ISBN 9783030913892

Gunthermann, Lukas, Philippides, Andrew and Roggen, Daniel (2021) Improving smartphone based transport mode recognition using generative adversarial networks. In: Ahad, Md Atiqur Rahman, Inoue, Sozo, Roggen, Daniel and Fujinami, Kaori (eds.) Activity and behavior computing. Smart innovation, systems and technologies . Springer, pp. 63-79. ISBN 9789811589430

Templeman, Charles, Ordonez Morales, Francisco Javier, Ciliberto, Mathias, Symes, Andrew and Roggen, Daniel (2020) Lessons from hands-free data entry in flexible cystoscopy with Glass for future smart assistance. In: Chen, Feng, García-Betances, Rebaca I, Chen, Liming, Cabrera-Umpiérrez, María Fernanda and Nugent, Chris (eds.) Smart assisted living: toward an open smart-home infrastructure. Computer Communications and Networks . Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, pp. 63-87. ISBN 9783030255893

Edited Book

Kawaguchi, N, Nishio, N, Roggen, D, Inoue, S, Pirttikangas, S and Van Laerhoven, K, eds. (2019) Human activity sensing: corpus and applications. Springer Series in Adaptive Environments . Springer. ISBN 9783030130008

Conference or Workshop Item

Gunthermann, Lukas, Philippides, Andrew and Roggen, Daniel (2020) Improving smartphone based transport mode recognition using generative adversarial networks. In: International Conference on Activity and Behavior Computing, Aug. 26-29, 2020, Kitakyushu, Japan.

Gjoreski, Hristijan, Ciliberto, Mathias, Ordoñez Morales, Francisco Javier, Roggen, Daniel, Mekki, Sami and Valentin, Stefan (2017) A versatile annotated dataset for multimodal locomotion analytics with mobile devices. In: The 15th ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems (SenSys 2017), Sunday 5th - Wednesday 8th November 2017, Delft, The Netherlands.

Kawaguchi, Nobuo, Nishio, Nobuhiko, Roggen, Daniel, Inoue, Sozo, Pirttikangas, Susanna and Van Laerhoven, Kristof (2016) 4th Workshop on human activity sensing corpus and applications: towards open-ended context awareness. In: Ubicomp workshop, 12-16 September 2016, Heidelberg, Germany.

Ordonez Morales, Francisco Javier and Roggen, Daniel (2016) Deep convolutional feature transfer across mobile activity recognition domains, sensor modalities and locations. In: 20th International Symposiumon Wearable Computers (ISWC) 2016, 12-16 September 2016, Heidelberg, Germany.

Ciliberto, Mathias, Ordonez Morales, Francisco Javier and Roggen, Daniel (2016) Exploring human activity annotation using a privacy preserving 3D Model. In: HASCA Workshop at Ubicomp, 12-16 September 2016, Heidelberg, Germany.

Ponce Cuspinera, Luis, Uetsuji, Sakura, Ordonez Morales, Francisco Javier and Roggen, Daniel (2016) Wearable beach volleyball serve type recognition. In: ISWC 2016: the 20th International Symposium on Wearable Computers, September 12-16, 2016, Heidelberg, Germany.

Kawaguchi, Nobuo, Inoue, Sozo, Nishio, Nobuhiko, Pirttikangas, Susanna and Roggen, Daniel (2014) International workshop on human activity sensing corpus and its application (HASCA2014). In: 2014 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing, 13-17 Sept 2014, Washington, US.

Miu, Tudor, Missier, Paolo, Roggen, Daniel and Plötz, Thomas (2014) On strategies for budget-based online annotation in human activity recognition. In: 2014 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing, 13-17 Sept 2014, Washington, US.

Conference Proceedings

Oishi, Nobuyuki, Lago, Paula, Birch, Philip and Roggen, Daniel (2023) Hierarchical feature recovery for robust human activity recognition in body sensor networks. 10th International Workshop on Human Activity Sensing Corpus and its Application, Cambridge, September 11-15 2022. Published in: Proceedings of the 2022 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (UbiComp/ISWC '22 Adjunct). ACM ISBN 9781450394239

Gunthermann, Lukas K, Pellatt, Lloyd and Roggen, Daniel (2022) Slow feature preprocessing in deep neural networks for wearable sensor-based locomotion recognition. 2022 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Workshops and other Affiliated Events (PerCom Workshops), Pisa, Italy, 21 Mar 2022 - 25 Mar 2022. Published in: 2022 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Workshops and other Affiliated Events, PerCom Workshops 2022. 58-61. IEEE ISBN 9781665416474

Oishi, Nobuyuki, Heimler, Benedetta, Pellatt, Lloyd, Plotnik, Meir and Roggen, Daniel (2021) Detecting Freezing of Gait with earables trained from VR motion capture data. 2021 International Symposium on Wearable Computers (ISWC '21), Virtual, 21 - 26 Sept 2021. Published in: ISWC '21: 2021 International Symposium on Wearable Computers. 33-37. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA. ISBN 9781450384629

Pellatt, Lloyd and Roggen, Daniel (2021) Fast deep neural architecture search for wearable activity recognition by early prediction of converged performance. The International Symposium on Wearable Computing 2021, Virtual, 21–26th September 2021. Published in: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Wearable Computing 2021. 1-6. ACM ISBN 9781450384629

Garcia Garcia, Leonardo A, Valsamakis, George, Kreitmair, Paul M, Munzenrieder, Niko and Roggen, Daniel (2021) Inferring complex textile shape from an integrated carbon black-infused ecoflex-based bend and stretch sensor array. Ubicomp 2021, Online, September 21 - 26, 2021. Published in: UbiComp '21 conference. 298-303. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, United States. ISBN 9781450384612

Garcia Garcia, Leonardo A, Kreitmair, Paul M, Johnson, Alexander J, Costa, Julio C, Pouryazdan, Arash, Lugoda, Pasindu, Roggen, Daniel and Munzenrieder, Niko (2021) Soft gel-free ECG electrodes based on biocompatible coconut-oil and carbon black. 2021 IEEE International Conference on Flexible and Printable Sensors and Systems (FLEPS), Manchester, United Kingdom, 20-23 June 2021. Published in: 2021 IEEE International Conference on Flexible and Printable Sensors and Systems (FLEPS). 1-4. IEEE ISBN 9781728191744

Pellatt, Lloyd, Dewar, Alex, Philippides, Andrew and Roggen, Daniel (2020) Mapping vicon motion tracking to 6-axis IMU data for wearable activity recognition. International Conference on Activity and Behavior Computing (ABC 2020), Kitakyushu, Japan, Aug. 26-29, 2020. Published in: Activity and behavior computing. 3-20. Springer, Singapore. ISSN 2190-3018 ISBN 9789811589430

Pellatt, Lloyd and Roggen, Daniel (2020) CausalBatch: solving complexity/performance tradeoffs for deep convolutional and LSTM networks for wearable activity recognition. ISWC/UbiComp 2020, Virtual Cancun, 12 Sep 2020 - 16 Sep 2020. Published in: UbiComp-ISWC '20: Adjunct Proceedings of the 2020 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing and Proceedings of the 2020 ACM International Symposium on Wearable Computersnternational Symposium on Wearable Computers. 272-277. ACM ISBN 9781450380768

Günthermann, Lukas, Simpson, Ivor and Roggen, Daniel (2020) Smartphone location identification and transport mode recognition using an ensemble of generative adversarial networks. UbiComp/ISWC '20, Virtual Event Mexico, September, 2020. Published in: Adjunct Proceedings of the 2020 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing and Proceedings of the 2020 ACM International Symposium on Wearable Computers. 311-316. ACM, NY, United States. ISBN 9781450380768

Jocys, Zygimantas, Pour Yazdan Panah Kermani, Arash and Roggen, Daniel (2020) Multimodal fusion of IMUs and EPS body-worn sensors for scratch recognition. EAI PervasiveHealth 2020 - 14th EAI International Conference on Pervasive Computing Technologies for Healthcare, Atlanta, United States, October 6-8, 2020. Published in: Badram, Jakob, Chung, Chia-Fang, Jacobs, Maia, Morrisey, Kellie, Orji, Rita, Song, Junehwa and Yarosh, Lana, (eds.) PervasiveHealth '20: Proceedings of the 14th EAI International Conference on Pervasive Computing Technologies for Healthcare. 325-335. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, United States. ISBN 9781450375320

Lugoda, Pasindu, Garcia-Garcia, Leonardo A, Richoz, Sebastian, Munzenrieder, Niko and Roggen, Daniel (2019) ShapeSense3D - textile-sensing and reconstruction of body geometries. UbiComp '19: The 2019 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing, London, UK, 09-13 September 2019. Published in: Adjunct Proceedings of the 2019 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing and Proceedings of the 2019 ACM International Symposium on Wearable Computers. 133-136. ACM ISBN 9781450368698

Ciliberto, Mathias and Roggen, Daniel (2019) WLCSSCuda: a CUDA accelerated template matching method for gesture recognition. ISWC 2019: International Symposium on Wearable Computers, London, 9-13 September 2019. Published in: Dunne, Lucy, Cakmakci, Ozan, Ward, Jamie, Unset, Unset, Unset, Unset and Unset, (eds.) Proceedings of the 2019 International Symposium on Wearable Computers. 32-34. Association for Computing Machinery ISBN 9781450368704

Wang, Lin and Roggen, Daniel (2019) Sound-based transportation mode recognition with smartphones. IEEE ICASSP 2019: Spatial Audio Recording and Detection and Classification of Acoustic Scenes and Events, Brighton, U.K., 12 -17 May 2019. Published in: ICASSP 2019 - 2019 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP). 930-934. IEEE ISSN 1520-6149

Richoz, Sebastian, Ciliberto, Mathias, Wang, Lin, Birch, Philip, Gjoreski, Hristijan, Perez-Uribe, Andres and Roggen, Daniel (2019) Human and machine recognition of transportation modes from body-worn camera images. International Conference on Activity and Behavior Computing, Spokane, Eastern Washington University, USA, May. 30 - Jun. 2, 2019. Published in: Inoue, Sozo and Rahman Ahad, Atiqur, (eds.) International Conference on Activity and Behavior Computing. 1 67-72. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

Ciliberto, Mathias, Ponce Cuspinera, Luis and Roggen, Daniel (2019) WLCSSLearn: learning algorithm for template matching-based gesture recognition systems. Internatoinal Conference on Activity and Behavior Computing, Spokane, Eastern Washington University, USA, May. 30 - Jun. 2, 2019. Published in: Inoue, Sozo and Rahman Ahad, Atiqur, (eds.) ICIEV-&-ICIVPR 2019. 1 91-96. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ISBN 9781728107868

Wang, Lin, Gjoreski, Hristijan, Ciliberto, Mathias, Mekki, Sami, Stefan, Valentin and Roggen, Daniel (2018) Benchmarking the SHL Recognition Challenge with classical and deep-learning pipelines. HASCA Workshop at Ubicomp 2018, Singapore, 8-12 October 2018. Published in: Murao, Kazuya, Enokibori, Yu, Gjoreski, Hristijan, Lago, Paula, Okita, Tsuyoshi, Siirtola, Pekka, Hiroi, Kei and Scholl, Philipp, (eds.) Proceedings of the 2018 ACM International Joint Conference and 2018 International Symposium on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing and Wearable Computers. 1626-1635. Association for Computing Machinery ISBN 9781450359665

Wang, Lin, Gjoreski, Hristijan, Murao, Kazuya, Okita, Tsuyoshi and Roggen, Daniel (2018) Summary of the Sussex-Huawei Locomotion-Transportation Recognition Challenge. HASCA Workshop at Ubicomp 2018, Singapore, 8-12 October, 2018. Published in: Murao, Kazuya, Enokibori, Yu, Gjoreski, Hristijan, Lago, Paula, Okita, Tsuyoshi, Siirtola, Pekka, Hiroi, Kei and Scholl, Philipp, (eds.) UbiComp '18 Proceedings of the 2018 ACM International Joint Conference and 2018 International Symposium on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing and Wearable Computers. 1521-1530. Association for Computing Machinery ISBN 9781450359665

Ciliberto, Mathias, Roggen, Daniel, Wang, Lin and Zillmer, Ruediger (2018) A case study for human gesture recognition from poorly annotated data. UbiComp '18, Singapore, 9th - 11th October, 2018. Published in: UbiComp '18 Proceedings of the 2018 ACM International Joint Conference and 2018 International Symposium on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing and Wearable Computers. 1434-1443. Association for Computing Machinery, New York. ISBN 9781450359665

Roggen, Daniel, Pouryazdan, Arash and Ciliberto, Mathias (2018) BlueSense: designing an extensible platform for wearable motion sensing, sensor research and IoT applications. EWSN International Conference on Embedded Wireless Systems and Networks, Madrid, Spain, February 14-16, 2018. Published in: Giustiniano, Domenico and Koutsonikolas, Dimitrios, (eds.) EWSN ’18 Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Embedded Wireless Systems and Networks. 177-178. ACM ISBN 9780994988621

Ciliberto, Mathias, Ponce Cuspinera, Luis and Roggen, Daniel (2018) Demo: Complex human gestures encoding from wearable inertial sensors for activity recognition. International Conference on Embedded Wireless Systems and Networks, Madrid, Spain, February 14-16, 2018. Published in: Giustiniano, Domenico and Koutsonikolas, Dimitrios, (eds.) EWSN ’18 Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Embedded Wireless Systems and Network. 193-194. Association for Computing Machinery ISBN 9780994988621

Ciliberto, Mathias, Ordonez Morales, Francisco Javier, Gjoreski, Hristijan, Roggen, Daniel, Mekki, Sami and Valentin, Stefan (2017) High reliability Android application for multidevice multimodal mobile data acquisition and annotation. 15th ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems, Delft, Netherlands, 5-8 November. Published in: Markham, Andrew and Zuniga, Marco, (eds.) SenSys '17 Proceedings of the 15th ACM Conference on Embedded Network Sensor Systems. ACM ISBN 9781450354592

Witchel, Harry J, Needham, Robert, Healy, Aoife, Guppy, Joseph H, Bush, Jake, Oberndorfer, Cäcilia, Herberz, Chantal, Westling, Carina E I, Kim, Dawit, Roggen, Daniel, Barth, Jens, Eskofier, Björn M, Rashid, Waqar, Chockalingam, Nachiappan and Klucken, Jochen (2017) Using wearable inertial sensors to compare different versions of the dual task paradigm during walking. European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics, University of Umeå, Sweden, 20-22 Sep 2017. Published in: Proceedings of the European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics (ECCE 2017). 150-157. Association for Computing Machinery ISBN 9781450352567

Gjoreski, Hristijan and Roggen, Daniel (2017) Unsupervised online activity discovery using temporal behaviour assumption. The 21st International Symposium on Wearable Computers (ISWC), Maui, Hawai, USA, 11.09 - 15.09.2017. Published in: International Symposium on Wearable Computers. 1 (3) 42-49. Association for Computing Machinery ISBN 9781450351881

Roggen, Daniel, Pour Yazdan, Arash, Ordóñez Morales, Francisco Javier, Prance, Robert J and Prance, Helen (2016) Electric field phase sensing for wearable orientation and localisation applications. Published in: Proceedings of the 2016 ACM International Symposium on Wearable Computers; Heidelberg, Germany; 12-16 September 2016. 52-53. Association for Computing Machinery, New York. ISBN 9781450344609

Templeman, Charles, Ordóñez, Francisco Javier, Symes, Andrew and Roggen, Daniel (2016) Exploring glass as a novel method for hands-free data entry in flexible cystoscopy. The 2016 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (Ubicomp 2016), Heidelberg, Germany, 12-16 September 2016. Published in: Bulling, Andreas, Lim, Youn-Kyung and Patel, Shewtak, (eds.) Proceedings of the 2016 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing. 581-592. Association for Computing Machinery ISBN 9781450344616

Pour Yazdan, A, Prance, R, Prance, H and Roggen, D (2016) Wearable electric potential sensing: a new modality sensing hair touch and restless leg movement. Published in: Proceedings of the 2016 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing: Adjunct; Heidelberg, Germany; 12-16 September 2016. 846-850. Association for Computing Machinery ISBN 9781450344623

Rendon-Morales, E, Roggen, D, Prance, H and Prance, R J (2015) Towards the correlation between human hydration and the electrical activity of the heart using Electric Potential Sensors. IEEE Sensors Applications Symposium, Zadar, Croatia, April 13-15, 2015. Published in: Sensors Applications Symposium (SAS), 2015 IEEE. 435-439. IEEE, Piscataway, NJ. ISBN 9781479961177

Roggen, Daniel, Ponce Cuspinera, Luis, Pombo, Guilherme, Ali, Falah and Nguyen-Dinh, Long-Van (2015) Limited-memory warping LCSS for real-time low-power pattern recognition in wireless nodes. 12th European Conference on Wireless Sensor Networks, Porto, Portugal, 9-11 February 2015. Published in: Abdelzaher, Tarek, Pereira, Nuno and Tovar, Eduardo, (eds.) Wireless Sensor Networks 12th European Conference, EWSN 2015, Proceedings. 8965 151-167. Springer, Cham, Switzerland. ISSN 0302-9743 ISBN 978-3-319-15581-4