Text Structure and Argument
Critical reading of text can become clearer through looking at some basic features of text analysis. For example, the what, how and why of a text.
WHAT refers to the information content. Key topic words like globalisation, participatory research, and so on will help you. The topic phrases at the beginning of (most) paragraphs will help you identify the what as well as chapter or section headings, introductory and concluding paragraphs, key words in journal abstracts, and indexes will suggest how much space is devoted to a topic (subject).
The what structure of many types of writing is:
- situation or background context
- problem or examples
- possible or current solution
- evaluation of the solution
This pattern is true for essays, reports, prepared presentations, research proposals and discussion articles, among others.
To critically evaluate the WHAT, consider the following:
- Do the facts selected illustrate the points made?
- Are the examples used typical ones or are they atypical or bizarre?
- Do the examples fit all cases or only some?
- Is another explanation possible?
- Are the statements supported by full reference to the sources?
- Are the sources good ones?
- Can you accept them?
- Are they trustworthy?
- Are there enough to convince you?
- Are the references suitably up to date and accurate?
(Remember, this is how tutors evaluate students' work as well.)
The HOW refers to the structure and organisation of the text and how link words and other aspects of text work together to form an argument.
Key organising words which refer to sequence are words like:
- first, next, finally
- who, which, this, these provide pronoun reference links
- similarly, in the same way show a comparison is being made
- on the other hand, but, however, in contrast indicate a contrast
- therefore, it follows that, consequently, as a result suggest an argument section.
Each new paragraph visually indicates a topic change and first paragraphs, as well as introducing the subject, give information about the structure of the text (instructions to the reader). Final paragraphs have a summarising and often an evaluative role. Reading first and final paragraphs thus gives a general idea of both the content and structure of a text.
To critically evaluate the HOW, consider the following:
- Is the structure clear and easy for the reader to follow?
- Do the parts fit together and make sense?
- Are there headings and sub-headings and paragraphs to guide the reader?
- Is the logic/argument clear - do statements in one part of the text contradict statements in another part?
- Are the argument and topic links clearly signalled or does the reader have to guess the writer's intention by supplying missing links in order to make sense of the text?
- Is there enough clarification and referencing or does the reader have to 'trust' the writer's assumptions in order to process the meaning?
(Do your essays live up to this?)
The WHY of the text refers to the author's viewpoint and objectives. The author's attitude is always signalled in the text even when it appears to be written objectively with no first person pronouns.
Examples of key words which show the writer's intention or objectives are:
- verbs: define, describe, illustrate, suggest, compare. justify, criticise, evaluate, demonstrate, proceed, conclude etc.
- verbs used to refer to other authors or authority: X claims, states, argues, discusses, mentions (= relatively minor reference, not the main objective) etc. which show the writer's attitude to other authors (many of these verbs can be used for both purposes)
- modal verbs, which indicate the degree of strength of claims (see hedging and mitigation): may/might/could be in contrast to absolute terms (strong claims) is/must be/is not/cannot be/could not be
- nouns of intention: purpose, objective, aim, consideration, debate,criterion; and value: ideology, concept, rationale, justification, reason etc. (Again there are overlaps, but the choice of vocabulary is indicative of the writer's attitude to the topics in the text.)
- Comment adverbs: clearly, obviously, essentially, certainly, secretively, suggestively, and so on.
To critically evaluate the WHY, consider the following:
- If the author claims to 'discuss', is that what she does? Does she adequately present both sides of an argument, both 'for' and 'against'? (This can be assessed by the amount of space devoted to each.)
- Are the claims too strong - should they have been hedged because the evidence presented is relatively weak? (See critiquing the WHAT)
- Does the writer make emotive appeals, for example, to group solidarity: we, as economists (see abuses of argument) in place of solid argument?
- Are adjectives/adverbs or phrases inserted into the text to make what is essentially the opinion of the author appear as fact? (See abuses of argument.)
- Think about the vocabulary choices you have made in your own essays: are they appropriate? (See kibbitzers and vocabulary confusions.)
Critical reading helps you to accept, question, seek to modify or reject what a writer wants to offer you. This could be the foundation for your own argument in your essay or presentation. The above also helps you to bear in mind the reader when you write. Your academic reader will certainly be reading critically - don't give them any obvious points to pick on! Remember, reading/writing is a kind of dialogue between reader and writer. Writers need to consider and anticipate readers' needs and the questions they might have within the context of the topic and the academic situation. Readers are more amenable to persuasion (that is part of the purpose of writers) and appreciation of writers' efforts when the WHAT, HOW and WHY are appropriately addressed. They are also a more detailed account of HONESTY, CLARITY, REALITY and RELEVANCE (the four principles of academic communication).