Note: Dissertations and thesis chapters are similar but a report, being largely factually based, will have a higher percentage of factual, descriptive text. A report is likely to contain explanation or examples and may provide an analysis of the subject under study, but the purpose of a report is not to argue but to present information/facts. The results, however, may be used to form the basis of an argument. There is likely to be an element of evaluation/recommendation, as part of the conclusion.
General Guidelines: academic writing (but see report above) must contain an argument or claim. This means it must address an issue or raise a question and present the appropriate data or information to illustrate it in a logical sequence, and then analyse and comment on it critically - both by reference to sources and by pointing out any illogicalities, such as inconsistencies or omissions. Students are assessed on their ability to select the appropriate and relevant information to illustrate their argument or claim.
Good academic writing has a formal structure, unlike fictional or personal writing. Exploiting this means that readers know what to expect, which greatly helps the communication process. The burden of communication is not carried at the word or sentence level alone but through the overall structure and organisation of the text. The content should be individual and reflect the writer's argument and research.
Essays contain the following basic elements. These may be in the form of paragraphs for undergraduate essays, or sections for postgraduate essays or dissertations. The overall structure of a thesis (as well as, to an extent, the chapters) will have a similar pattern.
| Introduction | The what/who; when; where, that is the general topic and specific focus of the essay (or presentation) must be introduced. The why and how, the central issue, claim or question addressed, and the aims and outline structure of the text must be included. Common patterns: present/future tenses. The personal pronoun 'I' is acceptable when used to explain the text's organisation. |
|---|---|
| Conclusion | This refers back to the introduction - how the aims were met. Common pattern: present perfect tense stating what the writer has done and learned from the exercise. The limitations of the present work and suggestions or recommendations for future action, study or more research is also often part of the conclusion. Common patterns: future tense; modals - should/may/could etc. |
| Percentage of total: introduction + conclusion 10-15%. See Order of Writing. | |
| Sections | The theoretical context/background to the question/issue raised, which may include ideas or hypotheses or reference to previous research as well as fully-fledged theories. It is also possible to compare two or more theories, in which case there may be no case study section or practical application type section, but there will still be a situational section to show how the context in which the theory/hypotheses etc. evolved. This may come before the theoretical section. Claims will need to be illustrated. The situational context/background section will specify the who/what/where/when/how /why and show the link between the theory etc. chosen and any practical applications or provide the historical context within which the theory evolved. The rationale or justification for the links between the theoretical and situational contexts need to be given. This could include the arguments provided by theorists (reference to authority) and methodological issues may need to be included. If you have chosen to examine a practical application of a theory, you will need to explain or justify the reasons for your choice of theory or case study or examples and illustrate their relationship to theory. You may have briefly referred to this in the introduction. Common patterns: past simple tense for events, present simple tense to describe theory; no first person (I, we) pronouns; possibly clauses of reason (because, due to, for this reason etc.). |
|---|---|
| (These sections provide the framework for analysis, explanation and evaluation in the subsequent sections. They are 'scene-setting' sections.) | |
| Percentage of total: 50% maximum for purely descriptive elements. If you are providing a detailed rationale for your choice of theory or case study etc. in the background sections because this is a strong part of your argument - perhaps an unusual choice of theory or application - then this section will contain more of your ideas and so may be longer, perhaps as much as 65%. The important point is to make sure that what you include is relevant and necessary to your argument. | |
| Analysis/ explanation | This is the 'meat' of your work, an examination of the results or outcomes or changes - including the expected and unexpected - in detail, a comparison between theories/theory and practice, predicted and actual results. This may include discussion of/comparison/contrast with similar studies or different approaches (theory or practice) with reference to other writers' experience/theories and your own deductions/inferences based on the previous sections. Common patterns: present simple, past simple tenses; modal forms - may/might/could; conditionals (if) and clauses of reason/result/deduction/inference/suggestion; hedging/mitigated forms. |
|---|---|
| Evaluation | This includes discussing problems and remedies, whether they exist in the theory (theories) or in practice or in both and what contribution they make to understanding and knowledge (to what extent the theory was able to predict practice/how far practice followed the theoretical guidelines); the need to modify or adapt the theory or methods of application; any areas ignored by the theory/research or any imbalance (perhaps gender bias) of emphasis or application, all leading to suggestions and recommendations in the conclusion). Common patterns: conditional forms-would/should have, 'if' (second/third conditional), comparative/evaluative adverbs and adjectives - it would be better/useful/ to... etc.) |
| Percentage of total: (analysis and evaluation) at least 30%. These are the sections which attract most credit to the essay writer. | |
It is not always possible to divide sections neatly, but keep in mind the above as guidelines. What is important is not to overindulge in background description. The common patterns may help you to be aware of what you are doing in each section and what other writers are doing when you read.
Click here to read more about text structure and argument
Most writing involves comparison - theories, theory/practice, the same geographical context at different periods of time (before and after), different geographical areas, different texts or different parts of the same text, different methodologies and so on. Focusing on comparison at the reading/noting stage (see tabular notes, for example) will make it easier for you to exploit the opportunities for analysis, explanation and evaluation which comparison offers. Analysis, explanation and evaluation has to be based on the evidence of data, with reference to authority. Analysis, explanation and evaluation is where you, as the writer, have your main creative role in the writing process. You can use your own experience and logical skills to help you create a framework for proceeding (see Brainstorming for Undergraduates or for Postgraduates) - to question and challenge assertions or received wisdom and point out logical or procedural errors, but you cannot use your individual opinion or experience alone as evidence in the academic context (unless you have already published in this academic area have researched the area for previous postgraduate study and therefore have the status of authority).