MHRA style

This guide is based on the 4^th edition of the Modern Humanities Research Association (MHRA) style and outlines the key principles of MHRA referencing. For full guidance, consult the manual: MHRA Style Guide: Fourth Edition (2024) (Modern Humanities Research Association, 2024).

Please note: Referencing requirements may vary between schools and modules. To ensure you are following the correct style, consult your module guidance, tutor(s) or school office.

Quick Links

How to Cite Sources in Text

In-text Numbering and Notes

MHRA is a notes-based referencing style. This means you cite sources using superscript numbers in your text, which link to full reference details in footnotes or endnotes. A full bibliography or reference list is also included at the end of your work.

Modern arguments that free will is an illusion are misguided.¹

Each number should correspond to a footnote (at the bottom of the page) or an endnote (at the end of your work or chapter, before the bibliography/reference list). Use one or the other consistently—check your module guidance or ask your tutor if you're unsure which is preferred.

Numbering and Formatting Notes

Notes should be numbered consecutively in the order they appear.
Each note should end with a full stop.

¹ Mark Balaguer, Free Will (MIT Press, 2014).

Placement of Note Numbers

Place the superscript number at the end of the sentence or clause, where possible. The number should come after punctuation, except for dashes (where it should come before).

The quick fox jumps over the lazy dog,¹ but the dog² - who was not so lazy after all - chased the fox away.³

Including Page Numbers

Include page numbers in your note when quoting directly or paraphrasing a specific section of a source. You do not need to include page numbers when summarising the overall argument or content of a source. Give page number(s) at the end of the note, after a comma.

¹ Derek Hughes, The Theatre of Aphra Behn (Palgrave, 2001), p. 112.

² Derek Hughes, The Theatre of Aphra Behn (Palgrave, 2001), pp. 223–24.

³ Tai Lim and others, Coal Mining Communities and Gentrification in Japan (Springer Nature, 2019), p. 55 doi:10.1007/978-981-13-7220-9.

Repeat Citations

When you cite a source for the first time, give the full reference. For later citations of the same source, use a shortened version including the author’s surname, a shortened title, and page number(s) where relevant.

¹ Sarah Eron, Mind over Matter: Memory Fiction from Daniel Defoe to Jane Austen (University of Virginia Press, 2021), p. 27.

² Eron, Mind over Matter, p. 29.

Quotations

Short Quotations

Place quotes of 40 words or fewer within single quotation marks in your text.

As Jane Austen writes, ‘It isn't what we say or think that defines us but what we do’.¹

If your quote isn’t a complete sentence, place the full stop after the quotation mark.

‘Anxiety in this group may present as a behaviour that challenges’.²

If your quote ends with a question or exclamation mark, add a full stop after the closing quotation mark.

‘Oh, the places you’ll go!’.³

Long Quotations

For quotations over 40 words: start the quote on a new line as a separate paragraph, indent the entire quotation from the left, and do not use quotation marks.

We are left with Roy Batty’s final monologue:

I've seen things you people wouldn't believe... Attack ships on fire off the shoulder of Orion... I watched C-beams glitter in the dark near the Tannhäuser Gate. All those moments will be lost in time, like tears in rain... Time to die.¹

In this scene, Scott presents...

Omitting Text from Quotations

If you omit part of a quotation, use an ellipsis in square brackets to show where text has been removed.

‘Generally, by the time you are Real, most of your hair has been loved off [...] But these things don’t matter at all, because once you are Real you can’t be ugly, except to people who don’t understand.’¹

Quoting Speech

If the quoted text includes speech or another quotation, use double quotation marks inside the single quotation marks.

‘He cried in a whisper at some image, at some vision—he cried out twice, a cry that was no more than a breath: “‘The horror! The horror!”’

Quoting Poetry and Verse

Short quotations (two lines or fewer)

Use a spaced upright stroke to indicate line breaks.

‘So rested he by the Tumtum tree | And stood awhile in thought.’¹

Long quotations (three lines or more)

Present the quote as a separate, indented paragraph. Do not use quotation marks. Preserve line breaks and indentation.

Our protagonist is ambushed whilst lost in thought:

And, as in uffish thought he stood,
The Jabberwock, with eyes of flame,
Came whiffling through the tulgey wood,
And burbled as it came!¹

Frequent Quotations from the Same Source

If you’re quoting repeatedly from the same source (e.g. a novel or play you're analysing), you can simplify your citations by giving the full reference the first time and adding a note that future references will appear in-text.

¹ John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath (Picador, 1987). Further references to this source are given in-text as page numbers.

‘They breathe profits: they eat the interest on money’ (p. 34).

If quoting from multiple sources repeatedly, you can use short title abbreviations, but avoid using this method for more than three sources as it can become confusing.

General rules for Notes & Bibliographies

Naming Authors

¹ Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin, The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures, Second edition (Routledge, 2002), p. 22.

² Maria Antoniak and others, ‘The Afterlives of Shakespeare and Company in Online Social Readership’, Journal of Cultural Analytics, 9.2 (2024), doi:10.22148/001c.116919.

³ Diary of an Oxygen Thief (NLVI Publishers, 2006).

Capitalisation

MHRA uses title case for major works. Capitalise the first word, all major words, and the first word after any punctuation.

States of Inquiry: Social Investigations and Print Culture in Nineteenth-Century Britain and the United States

Including URLs and DOIs

¹ Hitoshi Oshima, ‘Language, Science and Literature’, Comparative Literature and Culture, 24.5 (2023), doi:10.7771/1481-4374.3290.

² Charles Dickens, Martin Chuzzlewit (ElecBook, 2000) <http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/suss/detail.action?docID=3008582> [accessed 28 July 2025].

Bibliography/Reference List

At the end of your work, include either a bibliography or a reference list. A bibliography includes all sources you cited and any other works you consulted. A reference list includes only the sources you cited. Check your module guidance or ask your tutor(s) if you're unsure which to use.

Formatting your Bibliography/Reference List

Start on a new page with the title Bibliography or Works Cited, centred and in bold.
Invert the first author’s name (Surname, Forename). For additional authors, list names in normal order (Forename Surname).
List entries in alphabetical order by author surname. If a source has no author, alphabetise by the title, ignoring initial articles like The or A.
For works with more than three authors, list the first author only, followed by ‘and others’.
Do not place a full stop at the end of bibliography entries.
Place URLs (but not DOIs) in angle brackets: < >.

Example Bibliography

Caillard, Vivian, The Songs of Innocence of William Blake Set to Music (Novello, Ewer and Co, 1891)

Dickens, Charles, The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit (George Routledge and Sons, 1889) <https://data.historicaltexts.jisc.ac.uk/view?pubId=bl-000931922> [accessed 11 January 2024]

Hutcheon, Rebecca, ‘George Gissing: A Story of English Surrealism’, English Literature, 6 (2019), pp. 69–82, doi:10.30687/EL/2420-823X/2019/01/004

Lim, Tai and others, Coal Mining Communities and Gentrification in Japan (Springer Nature, 2019), p. 54, doi:10.1007/978-981-13-7220-9

Walsh, Claire, ‘Sylvia Plath’s Poetry of Youth’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Sussex, 2006)

Books

Use this format when referencing a book written entirely by the same author(s). If the book contains chapters by different authors, cite the individual chapter instead—see the Book Chapters section.

Citation Order and Format

Footnote/Endnote
Author(s), Book Title (Publisher, Year of publication), p. page number.

Bibliography
Author(s), Book Title (Publisher, Year of publication)

Example

Footnote/Endnote

¹ Vivian Caillard, The Songs of Innocence of William Blake Set to Music (Novello Ewer, 1891), p. 5.

Bibliography

Caillard, Vivian, The Songs of Innocence of William Blake Set to Music (Novello, Ewer and Co, 1891)

eBooks

If the eBook has a DOI, include it at the end. If the eBook has no DOI and is also available in print, cite it as you would a physical book. If the eBook is not available in print and has no DOI, include the URL in angle brackets and an access date in square brackets.

¹ Tai Lim and others, Coal Mining Communities and Gentrification in Japan (Springer Nature, 2019), p. 54, doi:10.1007/978-981-13-7220-9.

² Charles Dickens, Martin Chuzzlewit (ElecBook, 2000) <http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/suss/detail.action?docID=3008582> [accessed 28 July 2025].

Books That Are Not the First Edition

¹ Geoffrey Hartman, Criticism in the Wilderness: The Study of Literature Today, 2nd edn (Yale University Press, 2007), p. 122.

Books with Named Editors or Translators

If the book lists an editor or translator on the cover (in addition to the author), include their name(s) after the title: use ‘ed. by’ for editors and ‘trans. by’ for translators. List up to three; for four or more, list the first followed by ‘and others’.

¹ Daniel Defoe, A Journal of the Plague Year, ed. by Cynthia Wall (Penguin Books, 2003), p. 23.

² Gilles Deleuze, The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque, trans. by Tom Conley, 2nd edn (Continuum, 2006), p. 49.

Book Chapters

Use this format when referencing a specific chapter from a book that has different authors for each chapter. If the book is written entirely by the same author, see the Books section instead.

Citation Order and Format

Footnote/Endnote
Author(s), ‘Chapter Title’, in Book Title, ed. by Editor(s) (Publisher, Year of publication), pp. page range of chapter (p. page cited).

Bibliography
Author(s), ‘Chapter Title’, in Book Title, ed. by Editor(s) (Publisher, Year of publication), pp. page range of chapter

Example

Footnote/Endnote

¹ Nathaniel Leach, ‘Mary Shelley and the Godwinian Gothic: Matilda and Mandeville’, in Mary Shelley: Her Circle and Her Contemporaries, ed. by L. Adam Mekler and Lucy Morrison (Cambridge Scholars, 2010), pp. 63–82 (p. 66).

Variations

¹ Molly Farrell, ‘How to Read the Natural World’, in The Cambridge Companion to Early American Literature, ed. by Bryce Traister (Cambridge University Press, 2021), pp. 32–48 (p. 34), doi:10.1017/9781108878623.003.

² Anna Ljunggren, ‘The Contemporary Russian Cosmopolitans’, in World Literatures: Exploring the Cosmopolitan-Vernacular Exchange, ed. by Stefan Helgesson and others (Stockholm University Press, 2018), pp. 211–28 (p. 223) <https://directory.doabooks.org/handle/20.500.12854/26094> [accessed 29 July 2025].

Journal Articles

Citation Order and Format

Footnote/Endnote
Author(s), ‘Article Title’, Title of Journal, Volume Number.Issue Number (Year), pp. page range (p. page number), DOI.

Bibliography
Author(s), ‘Article Title’, Title of Journal, Volume Number.Issue Number (Year), pp. page range, DOI

Example

¹ Rebecca Hutcheon, ‘George Gissing: A Story of English Surrealism’, English Literature, 6.1 (2019), pp. 69–82 (p. 73), doi:10.30687/EL/2420-823X/2019/01/004.

Variations: Journal Articles Without a DOI

¹ Olivia Harrison, ‘Translating Race on the French Stage’, Comparative Literature, 73.4 (2021), pp. 385–402 (p. 386) <https://read.dukeupress.edu/comparative-literature/article/73/4/385/276757/Translating-Race-on-the-French-Stage> [accessed 11 January 2022].

Newspaper & Magazine Articles

For English-language publications, omit small words like “the” or “a” from the title (e.g. use Guardian, not The Guardian), except when citing The Times. If you accessed the article in print, use the same format but omit the URL and access date.

Citation Order and Format

Footnote/Endnote
Author(s), ‘Title of Article’, Title of Newspaper, publication day month year, p. page number <URL> [accessed date month year].

Bibliography
Author(s), ‘Title of Article’, Title of Newspaper, publication day month year <URL> [accessed date month year]

Example

¹ Sandra Laville, ‘MPs Call for Bathing Rivers across England’, The Guardian, 13 January 2022 <https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jan/13/bathing-rivers-england-pollution-water-quality-mps-report> [accessed 13 January 2024].

² Dan Old, ‘House Price Gloom’, Evening Chronicle, 26 June 2008, p. 25.

Theses & Dissertations

Citation Order and Format

Footnote/Endnote
Author(s), ‘Title of Thesis’ (unpublished Degree Level, University, Year of Submission), p. page number <URL> [accessed day month year].

Bibliography
Author(s), ‘Title of Thesis’ (unpublished Degree Level, University, Year of Submission) <URL> [accessed day month year]

Example

¹ Rebecca Sinar, ‘A history of English reflexives: from Old English into Early Modern English’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of York, 2006), p. 34 <https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/42604954.pdf> [accessed 23 January 2024].

² Claire Walsh, ‘Sylvia Plath’s Poetry of Youth’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Sussex, 2006), p. 22.

Poems

Citation Order and Format

Footnote/Endnote
Author(s), ‘Title of Poem’, in Title of Book/Anthology (Publisher, Year), pp. page range <URL> [accessed date month year].

Bibliography
Author(s), ‘Title of Poem’, in Title of Book/Anthology (Publisher, Year), pp. page range <URL> [accessed date month year]

Example

¹ Funwi Ayuninjam, ‘Christmas in Cameroon’, in Voices from Africa and Beyond: A Collection of Poems (Langaa RPCIG, 2011), pp. 11–12 <https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/suss/detail.action?docID=1135043> [accessed 17 July 2022].

Plays

If quoting or citing a specific part of a play, give the act, scene, and line number instead of a page number. Use small capital Roman numerals for acts (or other major divisions), followed by Arabic numerals for scenes and lines, separated by full stops (e.g. IV. 3. 54). If the play has named editor(s), give these after the title.

Citation Order and Format

Footnote/Endnote
Author(s), Play Title, ed. by Editor(s) (Publisher, Year), act. scene. line number.

Bibliography
Author(s), Play Title, ed. by Editor(s) (Publisher, Year)

Example

¹ William Shakespeare, Hamlet, ed. by T. J. B. Spencer (Penguin, 1980), I. 2. 177.

Webpages

Citation Order and Format

Footnote/Endnote
Author(s), ‘Title of Webpage’, Name of Website, publication day month year <URL> [accessed date month year].

Bibliography
Author(s), ‘Title of Webpage’, Name of Website, publication day month year <URL> [accessed date month year]

Example

¹ Willem Hollmann, ‘Five Things People Get Wrong About Standard English’, The Conversation, 8 October 2021 <https://theconversation.com/five-things-people-get-wrong-about-standard-english-168969> [accessed 11 January 2024].

Variations

¹ ‘Social Policy’, UNICEF, n.d. <https://www.unicef.org/social-policy> [accessed 21 July 2024].

When referencing social media posts: give the poster’s real name if known, followed by the username in brackets; if only a username is listed, give the username alone; keep all original formatting (including hashtags, emojis, and @mentions); and use the platform name at the time of posting.

Citation Order and Format

Footnote/Endnote
Name of poster (Username), ‘Title/Text of post’, Social Media Platform, day month year posted <URL> [accessed day month year].

Bibliography
Name of poster (Username), ‘Title/Text of post’, Social Media Platform, day month year posted <URL> [accessed day month year]

Example

¹ University of Sussex Library, ‘Redecorated study area anyone?’, Facebook, 25 June 2024 <https://www.facebook.com/sussexlibrary?locale=en_GB> [accessed 19 July 2024].

² Neil Gaiman (@neilhimself), ‘Two more days and my Twitter Holiday is over. This tweet did or didn’t happen. #SchroedingersTweet’, Twitter, 29 April 2014 <https://x.com/neilhimself/status/461174148757463040> [accessed 18 July 2024].

Films

Reference the film’s main release unless citing material unique to a special edition (e.g. a director’s commentary). If citing a special edition, include the name and year of the release after the main details, separated by a semicolon.

Citation Order and Format

Footnote/Endnote
Film Title, dir. by Director (Country of Origin, Year).

Bibliography
Film Title, dir. by Director (Country of Origin, Year)

Example

¹ Macbeth, dir. by Orson Welles (USA, 1948).

² Blade Runner, dir. by Ridley Scott (USA, 1982; Director’s Cut, 1992).

Youtube Videos

Citation Order and Format

Footnote/Endnote
Name of poster (Username if available), ‘Title of Video’, YouTube, day month year posted <URL> [accessed date month year].

Bibliography
Name of poster (Username if available), ‘Title of Video’, YouTube, day month year posted <URL> [accessed date month year]

Example

¹ Adam Buxton, ‘David Bowie - Cobbler Bob’, YouTube, 4 January 2014 <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kZEGHK_3W2o> [accessed 14 January 2024].

TV & Radio

Citation Order and Format

Footnote/Endnote
‘Episode title’, Programme or Series Title (Production Company, Years running), season number, episode number (Year of episode’s release).

Bibliography
‘Episode title’, Programme or Series Title (Production Company, Years running), season number, episode number (Year of episode’s release)

Example

¹ ‘The One Where Joey Speaks French’, Friends (Bright/Kauffman/Cane Productions, 1994–2004) season 10, episode 13 (2004).

Music (Songs & Albums)

Citation Order and Format

Footnote/Endnote
Artist(s), ‘Song Title’ from Album Title/Piece (Recording Company, Year of Release).

Bibliography
Artist(s), ‘Song Title’ from Album Title/Piece (Recording Company, Year of Release)

Examples

¹ The Beatles, Help! (Parlophone 1965).

² Lauryn Hill, ‘Ex Factor’ from The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill (Ruffhouse Records, 1998).

Bibliography

The Beatles, Help! (Parlophone, 1965)

Hill, Lauryn, ‘Ex Factor’ from The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill (Ruffhouse, Records 1998)

Variations: Orchestral Recordings

Start with the composer’s name; follow with the title of the piece, then list the performers, orchestra, and conductor if relevant. Precede the conductor’s name with cond. by.

¹ Leonard Bernstein, Symphony No. 3 “Kaddish”, cond by. Marin Aslop (Naxos, 1963).

Music (Scores)

Citation Order and Format

Footnote/Endnote
Composer(s), Title of Work (Publisher, Year).

Bibliography
Composer(s), Title of Work (Publisher, Year)

Example

¹ Ludwig van Beethoven, Symphony No. 5 (Merryman Music, 1994).

Beethoven, Ludwig van, Symphony No. 5 (Merryman Music, 1994)

Art

Include the location, medium, and dimensions if available. Use centimetres (cm) rather than inches for measurements and a multiplication sign (×) between dimensions, not a lowercase x.

Citation Order and Format

Footnote/Endnote
Artist(s), Title of Work, Year of creation, medium, Dimensions, Location.

Bibliography
Artist(s), Title of Work, Year of creation, Medium, Dimensions, Location

Example

¹ Vincent van Gogh, The Starry Night, 1998, oil on canvas, 73.7 × 92.1 cm, MoMA, New York.

Van Gogh, Vincent, The Starry Night, 1998, oil on canvas, 73.7 × 92.1 cm, MoMA, New York

Other Items and Sources

This page covers the most common types of sources you’ll need to reference. For guidance on how to reference any other items, see the full MHRA manual: MHRA Style Guide: Fourth Edition (2024).