APA style

This guide is based on the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2020) and outlines the key principles of the APA referencing style. For comprehensive guidance, consult the full manual: American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

Please note: Referencing requirements may vary between schools and individual modules. To ensure you are following the correct style, consult your module tutor(s) or school office.

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In-Text Citations

APA Style uses an author–date system for in-text citations. This means that whenever you refer to a source in your writing, you include the author’s last name and the year of publication, either within the sentence or in brackets.

These citations appear directly in the body of your writing and indicate the source of your information, ideas, or quotations Each in-text citation should correspond to a full reference entry in the reference list at the end of your work, allowing readers to locate the original source.

How to Cite Sources in Text

The format of an in-text citation depends on several factors, including:

• Whether you are summarising, paraphrasing, or quoting directly
• Whether the author's name is included in your sentence
• The number of authors
• Whether the author is an organisation
• If any publication information is missing (e.g. no date or no named author)
• If you are citing multiple sources at once
• Whether you are referencing a secondary source (i.e. one cited within another)

The sections below explain how to format in-text citations accurately in these different cases, with examples.

Standard In-Text Citation

If the author is not mentioned within the sentence, include both the author's surname and the year of publication in brackets.

Format: (Author, Year)

Example: Research into CBT has shown positive results (Kirwan, 2013).

Citations can be placed within or at the end of a sentence. When the citation comes at the end, place the full stop (or other end punctuation) after the closing bracket.

Narrative Citation

If the author's name appears as part of the sentence (a narrative citation), include only the year of publication—and a page number, if required—in brackets immediately after the author’s name:

Examples:

You do not need to include a page number when summarising the overall argument or content of a source.

Examples:

• Single page: (Randall, 2023, p. 15)
• Multiple pages: (Ng et al., 2015, pp. 379–380)

If the author's name appears in the sentence, place the page number in brackets after the quote

Example:

Note: If the source does not have page numbers (e.g. a video, presentation, or table), provide an alternative locator such as a timestamp, slide number, or table number.

Examples:

Multiple Authors

Two authors: Include both names, using ‘and’ in the text, or ‘&’ in brackets.

Examples:

Three or more authors: Cite only the first author, followed by ‘et al.’

Examples:

Group or Organisational Authors

Some sources list an organisation or group as the author, rather than naming individuals. If individual authors are provided, use those. If not, list the organisation or group as the author.

You can shorten the name of the organisation in later citations if the abbreviation is clear and widely recognised. In your first citation, give the full name followed by the abbreviation in brackets. For all subsequent citations, you may use the abbreviation on its own.

First citation: According to the American Psychological Association (APA, 2020)... (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020)

Later citations: As noted by the APA (2020)... (APA, 2020)

Unknown Authors

If no author is given, use the title in place of the author's name:

• Italicise book or report titles
• Use “quotation marks” for articles or webpages

Examples:

(“Understanding Sensory Memory,” 2018)

If the work is credited to "Anonymous", cite it as such:

Example:

No Date

Whenever possible, include the publication year in your citation. If no date is available, use the abbreviation n.d. (which stands for no date) in place of the year.

Examples:

(Myers, n.d.) As found by Myers (n.d.) ...

Secondary Citations (Citing a Source Quoted in Another)

Whenever possible, locate, read and cite the original source. If that is not feasible, cite the original author while acknowledging the source you consulted, using ‘as cited in’.

Examples:

Note: Only the secondary source (Kreindler, in this example) should appear in your reference list.

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Quotations

APA Style encourages writers to paraphrase information in their own words where possible, as this helps integrate the material more smoothly into your writing. However, direct quotations are appropriate when:

• Reproducing a precise definition
• Highlighting a particularly memorable or well-phrased point
• Responding to the exact wording used by the original author

How you format a quotation depends on its length. Short Quotations (Fewer than 40 Words)

• Incorporate the quote into your sentence and enclose it in double quotation marks
• Include the author’s name, year of publication, and page number
• Place the citation either after the quote or at the end of the sentence
• Add punctuation after the closing bracket

Examples:

Block Quotations (40 Words or More)

For quotations of 40 or more words:

• Start the quotation on a new line
• Indent the entire block 0.5 inches from the left margin (use the Tab key)
• Do not use quotation marks
• Double-space the quoted text
• Place the citation after the final punctuation mark

Example:

If the author is mentioned in the introductory sentence, include only the page number after the quote:

Example:

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Reference List

The reference list appears at the end of your document and includes full details of every source you have cited. Its purpose is to provide enough information for your reader to locate these sources.

Follow these key rules when formatting your reference list:

• Start on a new page, with the title References in bold and centred at the top
• List entries in alphabetical order by the first author's surname
• Double-space all entries (with no extra lines between them)
• Invert authors' names: list the surname first, followed by initials (e.g. Dickinson, J.)
• List all authors for each source (up to 20), separated by commas, with an ampersand (&) before the final name. Do not use et al. in the reference list
• Apply a hanging indent: indent the second and any following lines of each reference by 0.5 inches (use the Tab key)
• Use the title of the work in place of the author when no author is provided.

Capitalisation in reference entries: APA uses two main styles of capitalisation:

• Sentence case: Capitalise only the first word of the title or subtitle and any proper nouns. This is used for most titles of works (e.g. books, articles, webpages) in the reference list.
• Title case: Capitalise all major words, the first word of a title or subtitle, and the first word after punctuation. This is used for the names of periodicals (e.g. journals, magazines and newspapers) in the reference list.

Example Reference List:

References

How you format each reference depends on the type of source (e.g. book, journal article, website). The sections below provide specific guidance and examples for referencing different types of materials.

Note: APA Style uses a reference list, not a bibliography. A reference list includes only the sources you have cited directly in your writing. A bibliography may include additional background reading. Some modules may ask for a full bibliography—check your module guidance or ask your tutor.

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Books

If the entire book is written by the same author(s), reference the whole book using the format below. If the book has different authors for each chapter, reference the individual chapter you used instead. → See the Book Chapters section for guidance on how to do this.

General Format

Author Surname, Initial(s). (Year). Title of book. Publisher.

Example

Variations

Use the following formats and examples depending on the type of book.

E-books

If the publication information is the same as the print version, reference the e-book as if it were a print book. Include a DOI at the end if one is available. If there’s no DOI, only include a URL if you didn’t access the e-book via a database (e.g. Sussex Library Search, JSTOR, Google Scholar).

Example – e-book with a DOI

Example – e-book without a DOI

Note: Only give the URL if there’s no DOI and you didn’t access the book from a database (e.g. Google Scholar, Sussex Library Search, JSTOR).

Books That Are Not the First Edition

If the book is not the first edition, include the edition number in parentheses after the title.

Example

Books with Named Editors

If the book lists the editor’s name on the cover, include the editor’s name after the title followed by “Ed.” for one editor or “Eds.” for multiple editors. If there is also an edition number, include it after the editor(s).

Example – Edited Book with One Editor

Example – Edited Book with Editor and Edition

Note: Edited books often have chapters written by different authors. If this is the case, reference the specific chapters, not the edited book as a whole.

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Book Chapters

If a book has different authors for each chapter, reference the specific chapter you used — not the book as a whole. See the Books section if the entire book is by the same author(s).

General Format

Chapter Author Surname, Initial(s). (Year). Title of chapter. In Editor Initial(s). Surname (Ed. or Eds.), Title of book (Edition, pp. page range). Publisher.

Example

Variations

E-book Chapters

If the publication information is the same as the print version, reference the chapter as if it were in a print book. Include a DOI if one is available. If there’s no DOI, only include a URL if you didn’t access the chapter via a database (e.g. Sussex Library Search, JSTOR, Google Scholar).

Example – with DOI:

Example – without DOI:

Chapter from a First Edition

If the chapter is from the first edition of a book, you do not need to include the edition in your reference.

Example:

Reference Works

Use this format for chapters or entries in encyclopedias, dictionaries, or similar reference works when an individual author is credited.

Example:

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Journal Articles

General Format

Author Surname, Initial(s). (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, Volume number(Issue), page numbers or Article number. DOI or URL

Example

Variations

Use the following formats and examples depending on the type of journal article.

Journal Articles without a DOI

If a journal article does not have a DOI (Digital Object Identifier), follow the guidance below based on how you accessed it:

• If the article was found in print or through an academic database (e.g. Sussex library Search, JSTOR, Web of Science, Google Scholar), do not include a DOI or URL.

Example:

• If the article was not found in a database, include the direct URL.

Example:

Journal Articles with an Article Number (no page numbers)

If the article uses an article number (or eLocator) instead of page numbers, write Article and then give the article number.

Examples:

Systematic Reviews from the Cochrane Database

References to Cochrane reviews are formatted as regular journal articles, only Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews is given in place of a journal title.

Examples:

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Theses and Dissertations

General Format

Author Surname, Initials. (Year of publication). Title of dissertation/thesis [Doctoral dissertation/Master’s thesis, Name of Institution Awarding the Degree]. Database/archive name.

Example – Published Thesis

Variations

Unpublished Thesis or Dissertation

If the work is unpublished (usually in print or held in a university archive), indicate this in the square brackets.

Example:

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Newspapers and Magazines

General Format

Author Surname, Initials. (Year, Month Date of publication). Title of Article. Title of Publication, page number(s) or URL

Example

Variations

Online Newspaper or Magazine

Use the following formats based on how you accessed the article:

If accessed through a database (e.g., Nexis, ProQuest, Business Source Premier), cite it as you would a print article. Do not include the name of the database or a URL.

Example:

If accessed online outside a database, include the full URL at the end of the reference.

Example:

Monthly Publications

If the article is from a monthly publication, include the month instead of a specific day.

Example:

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Websites

Use the webpage/website reference format when the source does not fit another category (e.g., blog post, journal article, conference proceeding).

• If no individual author is listed, look for a group or organisational author (often found on the About, Contact, or copyright page).
• Provide the most specific date available, ideally in the format: Year, Month Day. If no publication date is available, use n.d. (no date).
• Most webpages do not need a retrieval date. Include a retrieval date only if the content is likely to change over time (e.g., online dictionaries, social media). Format retrieval dates as: Retrieved Month Day, Year, from URL

General Format

Author Surname, Initial(s). / Organisation Name. (Year, Month Day). Title of webpage. Site Name. URL

Example

Variations

Webpages with a Group or Organisational Author

If an organisation/group is responsible for the content, use the organisation/group name as the author. If the organisation/group author and site name are the same, omit the site name.

Examples:

Webpages with No Date

If no publication date is available, use (n.d.) in place of the date.

Example:

Webpages with Content Likely to Change Over Time

Include a retrieval date if the webpage’s content is likely to change (e.g. dictionary entries, social media profiles). Use the format: Retrieved Month Day, Year, from URL

Example:

Referring to a Website in General (No Reference List Entry Needed)

When referring to an entire website rather than a specific page, you do not need to create a reference list entry or in-text citation. Instead, include the name of the website in the body of your text and provide the URL in parentheses.

Example: 

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Reports

General Format

Author surname, initial. (Year). Title of report. Publisher. DOI or URL

Example

Variations

Reports with a Group Author

Use the organisation or government body as the author if no individuals are named. If the organisation is also the publisher, do not repeat it.

Example:

Reports with a Report Number:

If the report includes a report number, place it in brackets immediately after the title.

Example:

Reports that are Part of a Series:

If a report is part of a series, include the series name and issue number in brackets after the title.

Example:

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Data Sets

Use this format for referencing government, academic, and research data sets. These may be found in online repositories (e.g., Figshare, UK Data Service), databases, or official organisational websites.

General Format

Author Surname, Initial(s). (Year). Title of data set [Data set]. Publisher. DOI or URL

Example

Variations

Data Sets with Version Numbers

If a data set includes a version number, place it in brackets after the title.

Example:

Data Sets with Group Authors

If no individual authors are named, use the name of the organisation or group as the author. When the group author is also the publisher, omit the publisher from the reference.

Examples:

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Other Items and Sources

This guide covers the most common types of sources you’ll need to reference. For guidance on how to reference any other items, see Chapters 9 and 10 of the full APA manual:

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

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